The Emergence of New Dynasties

• By the seventh century, there were big landlords or warrior chiefs in different regions of the subcontinent.
• Existing kings often acknowledged them as their subordinates or samantas. They were expected to bring gifts for their kings or overlords, be present at their courts and provide them with military support.
• However, as these samantas gained wealth and power, they began to assert their independence and declare themselves as maha-samantas or great lords of their regions.
• A compelling example of this assertion of power is illustrated by the Rashtrakutas in the Deccan region, who were originally subordinates to the Chalukyas of Karnataka.
• In the mid-8th century, Dantidurga, a Rashtrakuta chief, overthrew his Chalukya overlord through a ritual known as hiranya-garbha, or the golden womb.
• When this ritual was performed with the help of Brahmanas, it was thought to lead to the “rebirth” of the sacrificer as a Kshatriya, irrespective of their birth status. Through this ritual and subsequent actions, Dantidurga established the Rashtrakuta dynasty as a dominant force in the Deccan.
• There were instances where individuals from enterprising families utilized their military prowess to carve out kingdoms for themselves. For instance, Mayurasharman of the Kadamba dynasty and Harichandra of the Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty were Brahmanas who abandoned their traditional professions and embraced arms. They successfully established kingdoms in regions such as Karnataka and Rajasthan, respectively. Their military acumen and strategic vision enabled them to assert their authority and create dynasties that would shape the political landscape of medieval India.
• The emergence of new dynasties not only transformed the political map but also contributed to the diversity and complexity of India’s cultural and historical tapestry.

Administration in the Kingdoms

• Many of these new kings adopted high-sounding titles such as titles such as maharaja-adhiraja (great king, overlord of kings) and tribhuvana-chakravartin (lord of the three worlds) to signify their authority and dominance.
• However, in spite of such claims, they often shared power with their samantas as well as with associations of peasants, traders and Brahmanas. In each of these states, resources were obtained from the producers – that is, peasants, cattle-keepers,
  artisans. These producers were often required to surrender a portion of their produce, which was sometimes labeled as “rent” claimed by the lord who asserted ownership over the land.
• Revenue was also collected from traders who operated within the kingdom’s territories.
• The resources obtained through taxation and levies were utilized for various purposes within the kingdom. A significant portion was allocated to maintaining the king’s establishment, including the upkeep of the royal court and administration.

• Funds were also allocated for the construction of temples and forts, which served both religious and strategic purposes.

• Furthermore, these resources were often used to finance military campaigns and wars. Victories in battles led to the acquisition of wealth in the form of plunder, as well as access to additional land and trade routes, thereby expanding the kingdom’s territory and influence.
• In terms of administration, key functionaries responsible for revenue collection were typically appointed from influential families within the kingdom. These positions were often hereditary, passing down within specific lineages. Similarly, positions within the army were also often held by close relatives of the king, further consolidating power within the royal family.

• Overall, the administration of medieval kingdoms in India was characterized by a complex system of governance that relied on the collection of resources from various segments of society to sustain the monarchy, finance infrastructure projects, and support military endeavors.

Prashastis and Land Grants

• In medieval India, the practice of composing prashastis, or eulogistic inscriptions, played a significant role in shaping the image of rulers and their administrations. These prashastis were typically crafted by learned Brahmanas, who occasionally held administrative positions within the kingdom.
• While these compositions may not always present literal truths, they offer valuable insights into how rulers wished to portray themselves, often depicting them as brave and victorious warriors.
• One common form of reward bestowed upon Brahmanas for their services was grants of land. These land grants were meticulously recorded on copper plates, which served as legal documents confirming the transfer of land ownership. The copper plates containing the details of the grant were presented to the recipients, ensuring the authenticity and permanence of the transaction.
• An exceptional example from the 12th century is a lengthy Sanskrit poem chronicling the history of the kings who ruled over Kashmir. This poem, composed by the historian Kalhana, stands out for its critical examination of rulers and their policies, diverging from the typical eulogistic tone found in other prashastis. Kalhana’s work is remarkable not only for its critical perspective but also for its extensive use of diverse sources, including inscriptions, documents, eyewitness accounts, and earlier histories.
• Kalhana’s approach to historical writing sets his work apart, providing a more nuanced and multifaceted understanding of the political landscape of medieval Kashmir. By drawing from a wide range of sources, Kalhana was able to offer a comprehensive and balanced account of the region’s history, highlighting not only the achievements of rulers but also their shortcomings and the broader socio-political dynamics at play.
• Overall, the practice of composing prashastis and granting land played a crucial role in legitimizing the authority of rulers and rewarding their supporters. However, the critical approach adopted by historians like Kalhana reminds us of the importance of questioning and critically analyzing historical narratives to uncover the complexities and nuances of the past.

Warfare for Wealth

• Ruling dynasties, while centered in specific regions, often sought to extend their control over neighboring areas, leading to conflicts and struggles for dominance. One such coveted area was the city of Kanauj in the Ganga valley, which witnessed centuries-long contention among rulers belonging to the Gurjara-Pratihara, Rashtrakuta, and Pala dynasties.
• This prolonged conflict, involving three distinct parties, is commonly referred to by historians as the “tripartite struggle.” In their bid to assert authority and showcase their power and resources, rulers frequently undertook ambitious construction projects, notably building grand temples. Consequently, during military confrontations, these temples became prime targets, given their immense wealth.
• A notable figure in this narrative is Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni, Afghanistan, who reigned from 997 to 1030 and extended his dominion over parts of Central Asia, Iran, and the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent. Mahmud conducted frequent raids on the subcontinent, targeting affluent temples such as the renowned Somnath temple in Gujarat.
• The riches plundered by Mahmud were utilized to establish a magnificent capital city at Ghazni. In his pursuit to understand the lands he conquered, Mahmud commissioned the scholar Al-Biruni to compile an account of the subcontinent, drawing upon insights from Sanskrit scholars. This Arabic work, known as the Kitab ul-Hind, provided valuable insights into the socio-cultural fabric of the Indian subcontinent.
• Other notable rulers engaged in warfare include the Chahamanas, later known as the Chauhans, who governed the regions around Delhi and Ajmer. Seeking to expand their influence, they encountered resistance from the Chalukyas of Gujarat and the Gahadavalas of western Uttar Pradesh in their endeavors to control territories to the west and east, respectively.
• Among the Chahamana rulers, Prithviraja III (1168-1192) is particularly renowned. While he achieved a significant victory over an Afghan ruler named Sultan Muhammad Ghori in 1191, he suffered defeat at Ghori’s hands the following year, in 1192.

A Closer Look: The Cholas
From Uraiyur to Thanjavur

• The rise of the Chola dynasty to power is a fascinating tale of ambition and conquest. It all began with a minor chiefly family known as the Muttaraiyar, who served as subordinates to the Pallava kings of Kanchipuram in the Kaveri delta region. However, in the mid-9th century, Vijayalaya, hailing from the ancient Chola family of Uraiyur, seized control of the delta from the Muttaraiyar. He founded the city of Thanjavur and erected a temple dedicated to the goddess Nishumbhasudini.
• Under the successive rule of Vijayalaya’s descendants, the Chola kingdom expanded its dominion by annexing neighboring territories, including those of the Pandyan and Pallava dynasties to the south and north, respectively. Notably, Rajaraja I, one of the most influential Chola rulers, ascended the throne in 985 and further expanded the kingdom’s control over these regions. He also implemented significant administrative reforms, strengthening the empire’s governance structure.
• Rajaraja’s son, Rajendra I, continued his father’s policies and embarked on ambitious military expeditions. He not only consolidated Chola control over South India but also extended his campaigns beyond the subcontinent, raiding the Ganga valley, Sri Lanka, and even countries in Southeast Asia. Rajendra’s naval prowess enabled him to establish Chola dominance in maritime trade routes, further enhancing the kingdom’s prestige and influence.
• The architectural and sculptural marvels of the Chola period, particularly the grand temples of Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram, reflect the dynasty’s cultural and artistic achievements. These temples, built under the patronage of rulers like Rajaraja and Rajendra, served as centers of craft production and economic activity. The Chola temples were not merely places of worship but also hubs of social, economic, and cultural life, supported by extensive land endowments from rulers and devotees.
• Among the crafts associated with these temples, the production of bronze sculptures stood out as a hallmark of Chola artistry. Renowned for their intricate craftsmanship, Chola bronze images are considered among the finest in the world, portraying not only deities but also devotees in reverent poses.
• The agricultural prosperity of the Chola kingdom played a pivotal role in its growth and development. The fertile lands of the Kaveri delta facilitated large-scale rice cultivation, supported by sophisticated irrigation systems.
• The construction of embankments, canals, and tanks ensured efficient water management, allowing for the cultivation of multiple crops throughout the year. Agriculture flourished under the active involvement of both rulers and local communities, reflecting the Cholas’ commitment to fostering economic prosperity and social welfare.
• In essence, the Chola dynasty’s legacy is a testament to its multifaceted achievements in warfare, art, architecture, and agriculture, leaving an indelible mark on the history and culture of South India.

The Administration of the Empire

• The organization of administration in the Chola Empire was structured around the prosperity brought about by the expansion of irrigation agriculture. This prosperity was evident in the settlements of peasants, known as ur, which formed the basic unit of governance. These villages were organized into larger administrative units called Nadu.
• Both the village councils and the Nadu played crucial roles in the administration of the empire. They were responsible for dispensing justice, collecting taxes, and overseeing various aspects of local governance. Within the Nadu, wealthy peasants belonging to the Vellala caste wielded significant influence over administrative affairs. Under the supervision of the central Chola government, these affluent landowners managed the day-to-day operations of the Nadu.
• To honor their contributions and maintain their loyalty, Chola kings bestowed prestigious titles upon these wealthy landowners, such as muvendavelan (a peasant serving three kings) and araiyar (chief). These titles served as symbols of respect and recognition of their important roles within the state apparatus.
• Brahmanas played a significant role in the administration of the empire, primarily through the acquisition of land grants known as brahmadeya. These grants led to the emergence of Brahmana settlements in the Kaveri valley and other parts of South India.
• Each brahmadeya was overseen by an assembly or sabha comprising prominent Brahmana landholders, who efficiently managed the affairs of their respective settlements.
• The decisions and proceedings of these assemblies were meticulously recorded in inscriptions, often inscribed on the stone walls of temples. These inscriptions served as valuable records of administrative practices and governance structures.
• Associations of traders known as anagrams occasionally undertook administrative functions within towns. Inscriptions from Uttaramerur in Tamil Nadu provide detailed insights into the organizational structure of these assemblies.
• The sabha at Uttaramerur comprised separate committees responsible for various tasks such as managing irrigation works, gardens, and temples.
• Membership to these committees was determined through a unique process where names were written on palm leaf tickets and drawn from an earthenware pot, ensuring transparency and fairness in decision-making processes.
• The administration of the Chola Empire was characterized by a decentralized system with a focus on local governance and participation. Wealthy landowners, Brahmanas, and trade associations played pivotal roles in the management of administrative affairs, contributing to the stability and prosperity of the empire.

Splendid Temples and Bronze Sculpture

• The big temples of Thanjavur and Gangaikonda , cholapuram, built by Rajaraja and Rajendra, are architectural and sculptural marvels.
• Temples were not only places of worship; they were the centres of economic, social and cultural life.
• Chola temples were architectural marvels and economic/social/cultural centers.
• The making of bronze images was the most distinctive crafts associated with temples.
• Chola bronze images are considered amongst the finest in the world. While most images were of deities, sometimes images were made of devotees as well.

Agriculture and Irrigation in Chola Empire

• Chola achievements were possible due to advancements in agriculture.
• Kaveri delta provided fertile land and water for rice cultivation.
• Canals, embankments, wells, and tanks were built for irrigation.
• Two crops a year were often grown through various irrigation methods.

The Administration of Chola Empire

• Peasant settlements (ur) prospered with irrigation.
• Larger units called nadu formed, governed by village council and nadu.
• Rich peasants had considerable control under Chola supervision.
• Titles like muvendavelan and araiyar recognized rich landowners.
• Brahmanas received land grants, leading to Brahmana settlements.
• Brahmanas settlements had efficient assemblies known as sabhas.
• Associations of traders (nagarams) performed administrative functions.

Types of Land:

• Vellanvagai – non-Brahmana peasant land
• Brahmadeya – land gifted to Brahmanas
• Shalabhoga – land for school maintenance
• Devadana/Tirunamattukkani – land gifted to temples
• Pallichchhandam – land donated to Jaina institutions

Lives of Ordinary People (Excerpt from Periyapuranam):

• Describes the daily life of Pulaiyas in Adanur hamlet.
• Illustrates the social and economic conditions of ordinary people.

Eligibility for Sabha Membership (Uttaramerur Inscription)

• Must be a landowner from which land revenue is collected.
• Must have their own homes.
• Age should be between 35 and 70 years.
• Must have knowledge of the Vedas.
• Should be well-versed in administrative matters and honest.
• Cannot be a member of another committee if they have been a member of any committee in the last three years.
• Cannot contest elections if they or their relatives have not submitted their accounts.

Life of Ordinary People (Periyapuranam Excerpt)

• The Pulaiyas, considered “outcastes” by Brahmanas and Vellalas, lived in a small hamlet on the outskirts of Adanur.
• Their homes were small huts with old thatches.
• They were agrarian labourers engaged in menial occupations.
• Their children, who wore black iron bracelets, played with puppies.
• A female labourer would put her baby to sleep on a leather sheet under the shade of arjuna trees.
• Drums hung from the branches of mango trees.
• Tiny-headed bitches lay after whelping in little hollows under the coconut palms.
• The red-crested cocks crowed before dawn, calling the Pulaiyar to their day’s work.
• Pulaiya women would sing as they husked paddy under the shade of the kanji tree during the day.

Important Questions and Answers 

1. Match the following:

Gurjara-Pratiharas          Western Deccan

Rashtrakutas                   Bengal

Palas                                Gujarat and Rajasthan

Cholas                             Tamil Nadu

Ans:

Gurjara-Pratiharas- Gujarat and Rajasthan

Rashtrakutas- Western Deccan

Palas- Bengal

Cholas- Tamil Nadu

2. Who were the parties involved in the “tripartite struggle”?

Ans: Rulers belonging to the Gurjara Pratihara, Rashtrakuta and Pala dynasties who fought for control over Kanauj were involved in the “tripartite struggle”.

3. What were the qualifications necessary to become a member of a committee of the sabha in the Chola empire?

Ans: The following qualifications were necessary for becoming a member of the sabha in the Chola empire:

• Must be owners of land from which land revenue is collected.
• Must have their own homes.
• Should be between 35 and 70 years of age.
• Should have knowledge of the Vedas.
• Should be well-versed in administrative matters and honest.
• If anyone has been a member of any committee in the last three years, he could not become a member of another committee.
• Anyone who has not submitted his accounts, and those of his relatives, could not contest the elections.

4. What were the two major cities under the control of the Chahamanas?

Ans: The two major cities that were under the control of the Chahamanas were Delhi and Ajmer.

5. How did the Rashtrakutas become powerful?

Ans: The Rashtrakutas in the Deccan were subordinate to the Chalukyas of Karnataka. During the mid-8th century, Dantidurga, a Rashtrakuta chief, overthrew his Chalukya overlord and performed a ritual called ‘Hiranya-garbha’ with the help of Brahmanas. During this period, it was thought that the sacrifice would be reborn as a Kshatriya, even if he was not one by birth. Also, they fought against the dynasties of Gurjara Pratihara and Palas. Thus, they successfully established kingdoms in Karnataka and Rajasthan respectively.

6. What did the new dynasties do to gain acceptance?

Ans: To gain acceptance, the new dynasties took on new titles and performed religious rituals to become a part of the Kshatriyas. They were known as subordinates or Samantas by their overloads and later declared themselves to be maha-Samanta after gaining power and wealth. The new dynasties also engaged themselves in warfare to assert their power and carve kingdoms for themselves.

7. What kind of irrigation works were developed in the Tamil region?

Ans: During the fifth or sixth century, the areas near the Kaveri River in Tamil Nadu were opened up for large-scale cultivation. The irrigation works that were developed in the Tamil region led to the development of water channels for agriculture, the construction of embankments to prevent floods, and the digging of wells and tanks for the storage of water.

8. What were the activities associated with Chola temples?

Ans: Chola temples were centers of craft production and often became the nuclei of settlements, which grew around them. The Chola temples were not only places of worship but also the hub of economic, social, and cultural life. They were also endowed with land by rulers, as well as by others. The produce of this land went into maintaining all the specialists who worked at the temple. Among the crafts associated with temples, the making of bronze images became the most distinctive and these bronze images are still considered the finest in the world. Most of these bronze images were of deities, while some of these images depicted devotees as well.

FAQs
Q.1. Who were the parties involved in the “tripartite struggle”?
Ans: Rulers belonging to the Gurjara Pratihara, Rashtrakuta, and Pala dynasties who fought for control over Kanauj were involved in the “tripartite struggle”.

Q.2. What were the two major cities under the control of the Chahamanas?
Ans: The two major cities that were under the control of the Chahamanas were Delhi and Ajmer.

Q.3. What kind of irrigation works were developed in the Tamil region?
Ans: During the fifth or sixth century, the areas near the Kaveri River in Tamil Nadu were opened up for large-scale cultivation. The irrigation works that were developed in the Tamil region led to the development of water channels for agriculture, the construction of embankments to prevent floods, and the digging of wells and tanks for the storage of water.